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Time-Related Considerations for Modeling Event-Based Data Collected via Ecological Momentary Assessment
Lizbeth Benson, Emily T. Hébert, Nicholas Hartman, Sarah H. Sperry, Walter Dempsey, Darla E. Kendzor, Michael S. Businelle, and Nilam Ràm
Ecological momentary assessments (EMAs) and wearable devices afford opportunities to collect real-time data on events experienced in daily life. Examples of event-based data in the psychological and behavioral sciences include smoking a cigarette, experiencing a stressor, having a disruption to sleep, experiencing a depressive or manic episode, drinking an alcoholic beverage, or engaging in a bout of exercise. The increasing availability of dense sampling approaches allows for the measurement of such events at relatively fast time-scales (e.g., occurring across minutes, hours, days, or weeks), expanding the possibilities for how time can be conceptualized and modeled. Survival analysis is a modeling approach that allows researchers to address scientific questions regarding whether and when events occur in time. Although not often applied to EMA data, there are myriad research questions relevant to psychosocial and behavioral scientists which can be addressed using survival analysis. This article provides an overview of survival analysis, describes several time-based considerations for modeling event-based EMA data using survival analysis, and provides several illustrative examples of the different time-based considerations. Altogether, the goals of this article are to enhance knowledge of the types of research questions that can be examined using survival analysis, to illustrate nuances of applying the method to EMA data, and to spark ideas for future empirical and methodological research.
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Peng, T., Choi, H., Chafe, C., & Ram, N. (2026). The Ensonification Interface: A Comprehensive Toolkit for Ensemble Sonification of Temporal Data. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, 74(3), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.17743/jaes.2022.0253
Xiao, X., Domingue, B. W., Ram, N., & Frank, M. C. (2026). Recovering Accuracy From Miscalibrated Item Banks: Scoring Error Is Fixable, Selection Error Is Not. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 00131644261486854. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131644261486854
Ng, M., Fischer, S. L., Jensen, K., Demuth, J. L., Cannedy, C., Ram, N., Herbert, N., Saena, V., & Wong-Parodi, G. (2026). Talking risk, enacting resilience: a case study of risk communication in a climate frontline community. Npj Natural Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44304-026-00275-8
Olson, A. E., Felt, J. M., Greifer, N., Fisher, Z. F., Shores, K. A., Ram, N., & Shenk, C. E. (2026). The impact of contamination bias when replicating maltreatment effects on child behavior problems. PLOS ONE, 21(10), e0358837. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0358837
Ng, M., Schumacher, A., Ram, N., Herbert, N., Wong-Parodi, G., Prestley, R., Morss, R., & Demuth, J. L. (2026). Risk perception, but not response efficacy, linked risk communication to protective action during an atmospheric river in California. PNAS Nexus, pgag332. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgag332
Burks, C. (2026, August 27). Within-Person Relations among Daily Physical Health, Sleep, and Perceived Control [Poster]. Psych Summer. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/Burks_PsychSummerPoster_20260826_nr_aagt.png
Hong, K. (2026, September 29). The Geography of Health: Exploring How Engagement With Third Places Shapes Perceived Physical And Emotional Health [Poster]. SYMSYS Poster Fair. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/09/HongKyra_SymSysSummer_20260928.jpg
Han, E., DeVeaux, C., Miller, M. R., Harari, G. M., Hancock, J. T., Ram, N., & Bailenson, J. N. (2024). Alone Together, Together Alone: The Effects of Social Context on Nonverbal Behavior in Virtual Reality. PRESENCE: Virtual and Augmented Reality, 33, 425–451. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres_a_00432
Fischer, J. R., & Ram, N. (2024). Personality Differences Drive Conversational Dynamics: A High-Dimensional NLP Approach. In J. Hale, K. Chawla, & M. Garg (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Workshop on Social Influence in Conversations (SICon 2024) (pp. 36–45). Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2024.sicon-1.3
Ng, M., Ram, N., Constantino, S., & Geiger, N. (2026). Examining climate emotions that accompany personal experiences of climate change: A dynamic network analysis. Global Environmental Psychology. https://www.psycharchives.org/index.php/en/item/d0d59a42-ea1d-4e30-9318-5e9871f7586b
Ram, N., & Gatzke-Kopp, L. (2023). Running Toward Network Models of Individuals and Their Contexts. Review of Research in Education, 47(1), 181–184. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X231219237
Sun, X., Ram, N., & McHale, S. M. (2020). Adolescent Family Experiences Predict Young Adult Educational Attainment: A Data-Based Cross-Study Synthesis With Machine Learning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(10), 2770–2785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01775-5
Ram, N., & Grimm, K. J. (2027). Chapter 2 - Data and models for multiple timescale processes in aging research. In D. Gerstorf & C. A. Hoppmann (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Tenth Edition) (pp. 13–26). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-27490-9.00024-5
Fischer, J. (2025). Evaluation and Comparison of Statistical Models for Intensive Longitudinal Data [Masters Thesis, Stanford University]. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/bayesian-methods-tutorials-for-psychological-research/
Tran Saucedo-Martinez, D. (2026). Engagement, Exposure, Exploitation: Algorithmic Persuasion and Explicit Content [Honors Thesis, Stanford University]. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/engagement-exposure-exploitation-algorithmic-persuasion-and-explicit-content/
Tran Saucedo-Martinez, D. (2026, May 15). Engagement, Exploitation, Exposure: Algorithmic Persuasion and Explicit Content in the Screenome [Poster]. TETHICON 2026: Tech & Ethics Student Research Conference. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/symposium-of-undergraduate-research-and-public-service-surps-april-2026/
Garg, M. (2026, May 15). Addiction or Agency? Examining Attention in the Smartphone Age [Poster]. TETHICON 2026: Tech & Ethics Student Research Conference. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/symposium-of-undergraduate-research-and-public-service-surps-april-2026/
Chi, Y., Cho, M.-J., Molaib, K. M., Sun, X., Robinson, T. N., Ram, N., & Reeves, B. (2026). Beyond apps: a method to model full distributions of screen content over time to study media effects. Communication Methods and Measures, 0(0), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2026.2697199
Gabreldar, S. (2026). “But Where Are You Really From?” The Cost of Movement: A Longitudinal Analysis of Migrant Life Satisfaction and Health Outcomes in Germany [Honors Thesis, Stanford University]. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/GabreldarSophie_ThesisDraft_20260526_nr.pdf
Kim, I., Robinson, T. N., Reeves, B. B., Haber, N., & Ram, N. (2026). Software Reference Architecture for Real-Time Mobile Digital Phenotyping: Evaluation of System Designs. JMIR Formative Research, 10(1), e87320. https://doi.org/10.2196/87320
Chen, Y. A., Lind, M. N., Ram, N., & Odgers, C. (2026). Adolescents’ Daily Affect Predicts Their Mobile Phone Use (Not the Other Way Around) (5d67p_v1). PsyArXiv. https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/5d67p_v1/
Xiao, X., Domingue, B., Ram, N., & Frank, M. C. (2026). Good Kitty, Bad Bank? Rescoring Miscalibrated CATs Improves Accuracy (Gk368_v1). PsyArXiv. https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/gk368_v1/
Ram, N., Brinberg, M., Pincus, A. L., & Conroy, D. E. (2017). The questionable ecological validity of ecological momentary assessment: Considerations for design and analysis. Research in Human Development, 14(3), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2017.1340052
Hu, Z., Ong, A. D., & Ram, N. (2026). Using Experience Sampling Methods to Study Identity Dynamics: A 5-Step Guide. Identity, 26(3), 177–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2026.2695595
Conroy, D. E., Marks, J., Cutshaw, A., Ram, N., Thomaz, E., & Streeper, N. M. (2024). Promoting fluid intake to increase urine volume for kidney stone prevention: Protocol for a randomized controlled efficacy trial of the sipIT intervention. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 138, 107454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2024.107454
Wong-Parodi, G., Ng, M., Herbert, N., Prestley, R., Walpole, H., Schumacher, A., Morss, R., & Demuth, J. L. (2026). Subjective attribution, experiences, behaviors, and climate policy support during increasingly risky storms. Cell Reports Sustainability, 3(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsus.2025.100628
Garg, M. (2026). Goal-Directed or Algorithmically Captured? Analyzing Attention in the Smartphone Era [Honors Thesis, Stanford University]. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Garg_Manasi_Attention_Final.pdf
Trockel, R. (2026). Wellness Behavior On and Off Screen: Affective Impacts of Engagement with Wellness Behavior and Media [Masters, Stanford University]. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Trockel_Rebecca_COMM_MA_DigitalWellness_Final.pdf
Park, E., Sun, X., Molaib, K. M., Ram, N., Reeves, B. B., & Robinson, T. N. (2026). Longitudinal associations between adolescents’ smartphone distraction management during family time and their relationships with parents. Educational Psychology, 46(5), 648–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2026.2619052
Ng, M., Chi, Y., Cho, M.-J., Eichstaedt, J., Reeves, B., Robinson, T. N., & Ram, N. (2026). Risk Communication in Real Time: Examining Individuals’ Smartphone Use During the 2021 Texas Winter Disaster With Mobile Sensing. Risk Analysis, 46(4), e70235. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.70235
Drewelies, J., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2026). Why historical context matters for adult development and aging. In M. E. Lachman, A. Spiro, S. Charles, & S. Neupert (Eds.), APA Handbook of Adult Development and Aging (pp. 567–583). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000444-029
Hussein, B., Sun, X., Molaib, K. M., Xu, T., Ram, N., Reeves, B., & Robinson, T. N. (2026). Smartphone use among adolescents during school hours: High-intensity objective observations across different instructional contexts. Child Development, aacag079. https://doi.org/10.1093/chidev/aacag079
Wettstein, M., Park, R., Kornadt, A. E., Wurm, S., Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2024). Postponing old age: Evidence for historical change toward a later perceived onset of old age. Psychology and Aging, 39(5), 526–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000812
Tran, D. (2024, October 2). “Screenertia” in the Screenome: Investigating Targeted Exposure to Graphic Content in Vulnerable Populations [Poster]. Symbolic Systems Summer Poster Fair. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/screenertia-in-the-screenome/
Garg, M. (2024, August 29). The Attention Economy and Mental Health: Anxiety as a moderator between ADHD symptoms, phone use, and sleep [Poster]. PsychSummer Poster Session. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/the-attention-economy-and-mental-health/
Garg, M. (2026, April 25). Addiction or Agency? Examining Attention in the Smartphone Age [Poster]. Symposium of Undergraduate Research and Public Service. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/symposium-of-undergraduate-research-and-public-service-surps-april-2026/
Tran Saucedo-Martinez, D. (2026, April 25). Engagement, Exploitation, Exposure: Algorithmic Persuasion and Explicit Content in the Screenome [Poster]. Symposium of Undergraduate Research and Public Service. https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/symposium-of-undergraduate-research-and-public-service-surps-april-2026/
Hu, Z. (2025, May). Dynamic ROPE Visualization for Posterior Parameters (a1–a5) [R Shiny Application]. Dynamic ROPE Visualization for Posterior Parameters (A1–A5). https://zhenchaohu.shinyapps.io/rsa2_shinyapp_may12/
Verhaeghen, P., Aikman, S., & Ram, N. (2026). Free Your Mind and Mental Health and Wellbeing Will Follow: Evidence from Across-Day Within-Person Mediation in an Eight-Week Mindfulness RCT. Mindfulness. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-026-02820-y
The battle for consumers’ attention. (n.d.). The Economist. Retrieved March 27, 2026, from https://www.economist.com/special-report/2017/02/09/the-battle-for-consumers-attention
Cole, P. M., Lougheed, J. P., & Ram, N. (2018). The Development of Emotion Regulation in Early Childhood: A Matter of Multiple Time Scales. In Emotion Regulation (1st ed.). Routledge.
Cole, P. M., Lougheed, J. P., & Ram, N. (2018). The Development of Emotion Regulation in Early Childhood: A Matter of Multiple Time Scales1. In Emotion Regulation. Routledge.
Helm, J. L., Ram, N., Cole, P. M., & Chow, S.-M. (2016). Modeling Self-Regulation as a Process Using a Multiple Time-Scale Multiphase Latent Basis Growth Model. Structural Equation Modeling : A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(5), 635–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2016.1178580
Chow, S.-M., Bendezú, J. J., Cole, P. M., & Ram, N. (2016). A Comparison of Two-Stage Approaches for Fitting Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) Models with Mixed Effects. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51(2–3), 154–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2015.1123138
Cole, P. M., Bendezú, J. J., Ram, N., & Chow, S.-M. (2017). Dynamical Systems Modeling of Early Childhood Self-Regulation. Emotion, 17(4), 684–699. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000268
Morales, S., Ram, N., Buss, K. A., Cole, P. M., Helm, J. L., & Chow, S.-M. (2018). Age-Related Changes in the Dynamics of Fear-Related Regulation in Early Childhood. Developmental Science, 21(5), e12633. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12633
Zhang, X., Gatzke-Kopp, L. M., Chen, M., Cole, P. M., & Ram, N. (2022). TIMESCALE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CONCORDANCE.
Hajal, N. J., Teti, D. M., Cole, P. M., & Ram, N. (2019). Maternal emotion, motivation, and regulation during real-world parenting challenges. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association, 33(1), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000475
Cole, P. M., Ram, N., & English, M. S. (2019). Toward a Unifying Model of Self-Regulation: A Developmental Approach. Child Development Perspectives, 13(2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12316
Cardwell, G. S., Cole, P. M., Gatzke-Kopp, L., Lunkenheimer, E. S., Buss, K. A., & Ram, N. (2024). A functionalist perspective of young children’s anger and sadness. Emotion. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001482
![Honors Posters at Symposium of Undergraduate Research and Public Service [April 25, 2026]](https://thechangelab.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/2026/04/Garg_SURPSVig_20260425-300x95.png "Honors Posters at Symposium of Undergraduate Research and Public Service [April 25, 2026]")
